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The PENGUIN GUIDE to the UNITED STATES CONSTITUTION
by Richard Beeman   
Article I Section 8
The final provision of Article I, Section 8, has proven to be one of the most important -- and controversial-- provisions of the Constitution. By giving Congress the power to make all laws ''necessary and proper'' for carrying into effect the previously enumerate powers, the framers of the Constitution opened the door to a significant expansion of federal power. Within just a few years of the adoption of the Constitution, some of the most important figures of the revolutionary era found themselves in bitter disagreement on the meaning of the phrase ''necessary and proper,'' with President Washington's secretary of the treasury, Alexander Hamilton, arguing for a broad construction of its meaning (for example, as ''needful,'' ''useful,'' or ''conductive to'') and Thomas Jefferson and James Madison arguing for a strict construction (for example, as ''absolutely necessary'). This line of constitutional difference between ''broad constructionists'' and ''strict constructionists'' was a bitter source of contention in the period leading up to the Civil War and continues in somewhat diminished form between the respective proponents of a more limited or more active federal government even today.
4. The clause relating to the promotion of science and useful arts gives to Congress the power to enact patent and copyright laws.
1. As previously mentioned, the power to levy taxes -- the ability of the government to provide for itself a permanent revenue with which to finance its operations -- was the single most important power given to the new government. The broad purposes for which that power was granted -- to ''provide for itself a permanent revenue with which to finance its operations -- was the single most important power given to the new federal government. The broad purposes for which that power was granted -- to ''provide for the common defence and general Welfare of the United States'' -- have been interpreted in widely different ways over the course of the nation's history, with the general trend leading toward an expansion of activity financed by the federal taxation power.
7. The seventeenth clause, giving to Congress the power to ''exercise exclusive Legislation ... over such District ... as may ... become the Seat of the Government,'' is the basis on which Congress created the District of Columbia, which is regarded not as a state but as a federal territory and the nation's capital.
5. Clauses ten through sixteen of Article I, Section 8, deal with the war powers of Congress. If the ''power over the purse'' has long been considered to be the most important of a government's powers, the power over the ''sword'' --- the ability not only to declare war but also to vote on appropriations for the financial support of war -- has run a close second. Congress's power to declare war overlaps with the power of the president, as commander in chief of the nation's armed forces, to direct the actual conduct of war. In one sense, this overlap is part of the Constitution's system of separation of powers, but in another it has become a significant source of constitutional controversy in recent years.mIn numerous cases since the mid-twentieth century -- in the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the First Gulf war, and most recently, the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan -- the president has proceeded with the prosecution of the war without a formal congressional declaration of war.
3. Establishing post offices and post roads may seem mundane enterprises, but this provision of the Constitution, in conjunction with an expansive view of Congress's role in promoting the ''general Welfare'' and regulating commerce, marked the beginnings of the creation of a national infrastructure that would tie the thirteen previously independent sand sovereign states into a singe nation.
Many American think of their Constitution as a document that protects the liberties of American citizens by defining those things that the federal government cannot do. This is the central concern of the first ten amendments to the Constitution, which today we call the Bill of Rights. But in fact, in many respects Article I, Section 8, constitutes the heart and soul of the U.S. Constitution. It specifically enumerates the powers that the federal government is permitted to exercise. The initial version of this article, as outlined in the Virginia Plan, gave an open-ended grant of power to the Congress, simply providing that Congress would have the power ''to legislate in all cases to which the separate States are incompetent,'' but when the Committee of Detail produced a comprehensive first draft of a constitution in early August 1787, that general grant of power was replaced by the more specific enumeration of powers that appears in Article I, Section 8. Among the most important powers enumerated in Article I, Section 8, are:
2. The ''commerce power'' has proven to be one of the most important and far-reaching provisions of the federal Constitution. Utilizing an ever-expanding definition of its power to regulate commerce ''among the several States,'' the federal government has broadened the definition of ''commerce to include not only the shipment of goods across state lines but also many other forms of activity: the building of interstate roads; the power to regulate the business activities of corporations; and the power to pass environmental legislation, consumer-protection laws, and occupational-safety regulations.
6. Congress' power over the appropriation of money gives it a substantial say over how -- or whether -- a war should be fought, but it has only rarely denied funds for the support of an army or navy once a war is under way.
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The Constitution of the United States of America
as currently amended

(Last amended July 7, 1992)



Overview
Courtesy U.S. Archives
"The Constitution of the United States contains a preamble and seven articles that describe the way the government is structured and how it operates. The first three articles establish the three branches of government and their powers: Legislative (Congress), Executive (office of the President,) and Judicial (Federal court system). A system of checks and balances prevents any one of these separate powers from becoming dominant. Articles four through seven describe the relationship of the states to the Federal Government, establish the Constitution as the supreme law of the land, and define the amendment and ratification processes."     U.S.Archives

Preamble

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Article I
"Article I assigns the responsibility for making laws to the Legislative Branch (Congress). Congress is divided into two parts, or "Houses," the House of Representatives and the Senate. The bicameral Congress was a compromise between the large states, which wanted representation based on population, and the small ones, which wanted the states to have equal representation."     U.S.Archives

Section 1
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Section 2
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Article I
Section 3
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Article I
Section 4
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Article I
Section 5
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Article I
Section 6
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Article I
Section 7
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Article I
Section 8
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Article I
Section 9
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Article I
Section 10
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Article II
"Article II details the Executive Branch and the offices of the President and Vice President. It lays down rules for electing the President (through the Electoral College), eligibility (must be a natural-born citizen at least 35 years old), and term length. The 12th and 25th Amendments modified some of these rules."     U.S.Archives

Section 1
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Section 2
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Section 3
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Section 4
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Article III
"Article III establishes the Judicial Branch with the U.S. Supreme Court as the federal court system's highest court. It specifies that Federal judges be appointed for life unless they commit a serious crime. This article is shorter than Articles I and II. The Federal Convention left much of the work of planning the court system to the First Congress. The 1789 Judiciary Act created the three-tiered court system in place today."     U.S.Archives

Section 1
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Section 2
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Section 3
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Article IV
"Article IV outlines states' powers in relationship to each other. States have the authority to create and enforce their own laws but must respect and help enforce the laws of other states. Congress may pass Federal laws regarding how states honor other states' laws and records."     U.S.Archives

Section 1
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Section 2
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Section 3
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Article V
"Article V explains the amendment process, which is different and more difficult than the process for making laws. When two-thirds of the Senate and two-thirds of the House of Representatives vote to change the Constitution, an amendment goes to the state legislatures for a vote. Alternatively, two-thirds of the state legislatures can submit an application to Congress, and then Congress calls a national convention at which states propose amendments. Three-fourths of the state legislatures or state conventions must vote in favor of an amendment to ratify it."     U.S.Archives


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Article VI
"Article VI states that Federal law is supreme, or higher than, state and local laws. This means that if a state law conflicts with a Federal law, Federal law takes precedence."     U.S.Archives


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Article VII
"Article VII describes the ratification process for the Constitution. It called for special state ratifying conventions. Nine states were required to enact the Constitution." New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify the Constitution on June 21, 1788. (RYC editor's note) "Rhode Island became the 13th state to ratify the Constitution in 1790."     U.S.Archives


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Bill of Rights
Courtesy U.S. Archives
"The Constitution might never have been ratified if the framers hadn't promised to add a Bill of Rights. The first ten amendments to the Constitution gave citizens more confidence in the new government and contain many of today's Americans' most valued freedoms."     U.S.Archives

"The Bill of Rights is the first 10 Amendments to the Constitution. It spells out Americans' rights in relation to their government. It guarantees civil rights and liberties to the individual-like freedom of speech, press, and religion. It sets rules for due process of law and reserves all powers not delegated to the Federal Government to the people or the States. And it specifies that "the enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people."     U.S.Archives


Amendment I
Date Ratified: 12/15/1791
"The First Amendment provides several rights protections: to express ideas through speech and the press, to assemble or gather with a group to protest or for other reasons, and to ask the government to fix problems. It also protects the right to religious beliefs and practices. It prevents the government from creating or favoring a religion."     U.S.Archives


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Amendment II
Date Ratified: 12/15/1791
"The Second Amendment protects the right to keep and bear arms.""     U.S.Archives


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Amendment III
Date Ratified: 12/15/1791
"The Third Amendment prevents government from forcing homeowners to allow soldiers to use their homes. Before the Revolutionary War, laws gave British soldiers the right to take over private homes."     U.S.Archives


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Amendment IV
Date Ratified: 12/15/1791
"The Fourth Amendment bars the government from unreasonable search and seizure of an individual or their private property."     U.S.Archives


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Amendment V
Date Ratified: 12/15/1791
"The Fifth Amendment provides several protections for people accused of crimes. It states that serious criminal charges must be started by a grand jury. A person cannot be tried twice for the same offense (double jeopardy) or have property taken away without just compensation. People have the right against self-incrimination and cannot be imprisoned without due process of law (fair procedures and trials.)"     U.S.Archives


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Amendment VI
Date Ratified: 12/15/1791
"The Sixth Amendment provides additional protections to people accused of crimes, such as the right to a speedy and public trial, trial by an impartial jury in criminal cases, and to be informed of criminal charges. Witnesses must face the accused, and the accused is allowed his or her own witnesses and to be represented by a lawyer."     U.S.Archives


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Amendment VII
Date Ratified: 12/15/1791
"The Seventh Amendment extends the right to a jury trial in Federal civil cases."     U.S.Archives


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Amendment VIII
Date Ratified: 12/15/1791
"The Eighth Amendment bars excessive bail and fines and cruel and unusual punishment."     U.S.Archives


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Amendment IX
Date Ratified: 12/15/1791
"The Ninth Amendment states that listing specific rights in the Constitution does not mean that people do not have other rights that have not been spelled out."     U.S.Archives


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Amendment X
Date Ratified: 12/15/1791
"The Tenth Amendment says that the Federal Government only has those powers delegated in the Constitution. If it isn't listed, it belongs to the states or to the people."     U.S.Archives


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Amendment XI
Date Passed by Congress: 03/04/1794
Date Ratified: 02/07/1795


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Amendment XII
Date Passed by Congress: 12/09/1803
Date Ratified: 06/15/1804


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Amendment XIII
Date Passed by Congress: 01/31/1865
Date Ratified: 12/06/1865

Section 1
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Section 2
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Amendment XIV
Date Passed by Congress: 06/13/1866
Date Ratified: 07/09/1868

Section 1
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Section 2
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Section 3
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Section 5
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Amendment XV
Date Passed by Congress: 02/26/1869
Date Ratified: 02/03/1870

Section 1
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Amendment XVI
Date Passed by Congress: 07/02/1909
Date Ratified: 02/03/1913


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Amendment XVII
Date Passed by Congress: 05/13/1912
Date Ratified: 04/08/1913


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Amendment XVIII
Date Passed by Congress: 12/18/1917
Date Ratified: 01/16/1919

Section 1
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Section 3
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Amendment XIX
Date Passed by Congress: 06/04/1919
Date Ratified: 08/18/1920


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Amendment XX
Date Passed by Congress: 03/02/1932
Date Ratified: 01/23/1933

Section 1
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Section 2
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Section 3
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Section 6
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Amendment XXI
Date Passed by Congress: 02/20/1933
Date Ratified: 12/05/1933

Section 1
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Section 2
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Section 3
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Amendment XXII
Date Passed by Congress: 03/21/1947
Date Ratified: 02/27/1951

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Amendment XXIII
Date Passed by Congress: 06/16/1960
Date Ratified: 03/29/1961

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Amendment XXIV
Date Passed by Congress: 09/14/1962
Date Ratified: 01/23/1964

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Amendment XXV
Date Passed by Congress: 07/06/1965
Date Ratified: 012/10/1967

Section 1
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Section 2
Note: Modifies Article II, section 1, clause 6.         >     Heritage     Miscellaneous     Wikipedia

Section 3
Note: Modifies Article II, section 1, clause 6.         >     Heritage     Miscellaneous     Wikipedia

Section 4
Note: Modifies Article II, section 1, clause 6.         >     Heritage     Miscellaneous     Wikipedia

Note: Modifies Article II, section 1, clause 6.         >     Miscellaneous     Wikipedia
Beeman    

Amendment XXVI
Date Passed by Congress: 03/23/1971
Date Ratified: 07/01/1971

Section 1
Note: Modifies Amendment 14, section 2.         >     Heritage     Miscellaneous     Wikipedia

Section 2
>     Heritage     Miscellaneous     Wikipedia
Beeman    

Amendment XXVII
Date Passed by Congress: 09/25/1789
Date Ratified: 57/07/1992


Note: Modifies Article I, section 6, sentence 1.         >     Heritage     Miscellaneous     Wikipedia
Beeman    
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